Astronomy: a prequel to space flight

Over many centuries, the idea of space travel has been taking shape with the humanity's improving understanding of the Universe. Before flying machines could attempt to escape the Earth's gravity, generations of astronomers had been bluilding a realistic stage for space exploration, while their tools served as the earliest space research instruments.

After millennia of dreams, centuries of scientific research and decades of engineering experimentation, the Space Age began in 1957 with the launch of the Earth's first artificial satellite.

Sputnik: The Soviet satellite project | Sputnik-2: Laika's mission | Sputnik-3: The multi-purpose orbital science lab

The Soviet Union pioneered human conquest of space sending the first piloted spacecraft into orbit in 1961. Since then, several generations of transport ships and orbital stations were developed in the country. Much more ambitious projects of giant orbital settlements, lunar bases and expeditions to Mars were conceived, but could not be implemented due to their tremendous cost. Yet, along with the United States, Russia had remained one of two nations in the world sending people in space in the 20th century.

HISTORICAL PROJECTS

• Vostok-1KP
• Vostok-1K No. 1
• Vostok-1K No. 2
• Vostok-1K No. 5
• Vostok-1K No. 6
• Vostok-3A No. 1
• Vostok-3A No. 2
• Yuri Gagarin's mission aboard Vostok
• Vostok-2: First day-long flight
• Vostok-3 and Vostok-4: world's first dual mission
• Vostok-5 and Vostok-6: The first woman in space
• Voskhod mission
• Voskhod-2 mission

• LK-1 circumlunar mission project
• 7K-L1 circumlunar mission project
  • L1 No. 2P (Kosmos-146)
  • L1 No. 3P (Kosmos-154)
  • L1 No. 4L
  • L1 No. 5L
  • L1 No. 6L (Zond-4)
  • L1 No. 7L
  • L1 No. 8L
  • L1 No. 9L (Zond-5)
  • L1 No. 12L (Zond-6)
  • L1 No. 13L
  • L1 No. 11L (Zond-7)
  • NEW, Nov. 28: L1E No. 1
  • Zond-8
• L3 lunar landing complex
  • 21K tanker
  • 19K vehicle
• LK lunar lander
  • Block E
  • DALS instrument package
• LOK lunar transport vehicle
• NEW, April 17: Origin of the L3M project (INSIDER CONTENT)
• NEW, July 1: Soviet space strategy planning in 1967 (INSIDER CONTENT)
• NEW, Oct. 15: LKT lunar lander concept (INSIDER CONTENT)
• D2 space tug for the L3M expeditionary complex (INSIDER CONTENT)
• LKM lunar lander for the L3M expeditionary complex (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Plans for a permanent lunar base
• NEW, May 21: Cancellation of the N1/L3 project

Mars mission: Russian plans for a manned expedition to the Red Planet (1960s-1990s)

First space stations (Salyut series, 1969-1985)

• The origin of the Salyut project
• Building the first Salyut
• Design of Salyut
• Salyut-1 lifts off
• Soyuz-10
• Soyuz-11
  • Soyuz-11 accident
• DOS-7K No. 2
• DOS-7K No. 3
• Soyuz-12
• Soyuz-13
• Soyuz-14
• NEW, Aug. 26: Soyuz-15

NEW, April 3: Soyuz 7K-TM variant

• NEW, April 3: Soyuz 7K-TM No. 71 (Kosmos-638) (INSIDER CONTENT)
• NEW, Aug 12: Soyuz 7K-TM No. 72 (Kosmos-672) (INSIDER CONTENT)

Almaz military space station program:

• OPS-1
• OPS-2
  • NEW, July 3: Soyuz-14
• OPS-3
• OPS-4
  • Shield-2 anti-satellite system
• Almaz-205
• Almaz-206
• TKS spacecraft

Progress cargo ship series

• Progress-MS series
  • NEW, Dec. 9: Progress-MS refueling system, SD (INSIDER CONTENT)
  • Latest mission: Progress MS-27

LKS: Vladimir Chelomei's alternative to Buran (1974-1983)

Spiral orbiter | Spiral's technical description

Buran: The Energia-Buran reusable spacecraft program (1974-1993)

• BOR scaled prototypes of Buran | Buran BTS-002/OK GLI flight test vehicle
• Strizh rescue suit

Mir space station: The first permanent manned outpost in space (1986-2001)

Kliper space plane: A study of a reusable orbiter to replace Soyuz (2000-2006)

TKS follow-on: Proposals for a follow-on series to the TKS spacecraft by Khrunichev enterprise (2005-2009)

FLYING TODAY

International Space Station, ISS

Chronology of ISS development and assembly

• NEW, Jan. 30: ISS in 2024 (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Soyuz MS series
  • Upgrades to Soyuz-MS and Progress-MS spacecraft (INSIDER CONTENT)
  • Update, Sept. 16: Soyuz MS-14 (Automated test flight)
    • NEW, Sept. 18: Soyuz MS-14 emergency ballistic descent (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Latest mission: Soyuz MS-26 (The 72nd long-duration expedition to the ISS)
• Progress MS series
  • Latest mission: Progress MS-29

Russian Segment of the ISS

• Science aboard the Russian ISS Segment (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Ground simulators for the Russian Segment (INSIDER CONTENT)

• Zarya Control Module, FGB
  • Launch of Zarya
• Zvezda Service Module, SM
• Pirs Docking Compartment, SO1
• Rassvet Mini-Rsearch Module, MIM1
• Poisk Mini-Research Module, MIM2
• Fedor (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Universal Docking Module, USM
• Nauka Multi-purpose Laboratory Module, MLM, (formerly FGB-2)
  • Nauka carries docking port - transformer (INSIDER CONTENT)
  • Science airlock, ShK (INSIDER CONTENT)
  • Life-support system (INSIDER CONTENT)
  • Flight control system (INSIDER CONTENT)
  • MLM development in 2021 (INSIDER CONTENT)
  • History of the European Robotic Arm, ERA (INSIDER CONTENT)
  • Preparation of MLM at launch site (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Integration of the MLM Nauka module with the Russian ISS segment
• ERA activities, Nauka outfitting in 2023 (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Node Module, UM
  • Prichal's docking mechanisms (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Integrating node module with ISS (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Planning for ISS deorbiting (INSIDER CONTENT)

American segment of ISS

• Cygnus

European segment of ISS

• Columbus laboratory module
• ATV cargo ship

PLANS FOR THE FUTURE

Russian piloted space program strategy in the 2010s and 2020s

• Planning for human exploration of the Moon in 2018 (INSIDER CONTENT)
  • Russia considers cooperation with China in human space flight (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Planning for human exploration of the Moon in 2019 (INSIDER CONTENT)
  • Lunar base concept in 2019 (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Russian human space flight in 2020 (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Planning for human exploration of the Moon in 2020 (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Russian human space flight in 2021 (INSIDER CONTENT)
  • Planning for human exploration of the Moon in 2021 (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Russian human space flight in 2022 (INSIDER CONTENT)

Russian ISS segment

• Science and Power Module, NEM
  • NEW, July 29: NEM module in 2024 (INSIDER CONTENT)
  • NEM-2 tourist module (INSIDER CONTENT)

Cargo vehicle with increased payload capacity, TGK PG

Russian Orbital Station, ROS, project to succeed the ISS

• NEW, Jan. 24: ROS project in 2024 (INSIDER CONTENT)
  • Commercial module (INSIDER CONTENT)
  • Progress ROS (INSIDER CONTENT)
  • SGM module (INSIDER CONTENT)
  • UM module for ROSS complex (INSIDER CONTENT)
  • NEW, Aug. 8: TGKM MM space tug (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Inflatable systems

Russia's next-generation crew vehicle, PTK Orel (formerly Federatsiya):

PTK Orel design:

• Crew module of the PTK NP spacecraft
  • NEW, July 10: Interior of the KO compartment (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Aggregate Compartment of the PTK NP spacecraft
  • Evolution of the Aggregate Compartment in 2020 (INSIDER CONTENT)
  • Landing Solid-propellant Propulsion Unit, PTDU, for PTK (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Docking system for PTK NP
• Landing gear of PTK NP spacecraft
• Propulsion Module, DO
• Escape system for PTK NP in 2020 (INSIDER CONTENT)
• New landing propulsion system for PTK Federatsiya spacecraft (INSIDER CONTENT)

PTK Orel development history:

• An early concept of a manned lunar transport
• ACTS concept
• Origin of the ACTS project
• ACTS development
• Atmospheric Reentry Demonstrator, ARD
• PTK NP (PPTS) development
• PTK NP development in 2010
• PTK NP development in 2011
• PTK NP development in 2012
• PTK NP development in 2013
• PTK NP development in 2014
• PTK NP development in 2015
• PTK NP development in 2016
• PTK NP development in 2017
• PTK NP development in 2018 (INSIDER CONTENT)
• PTK NP development in 2019 (INSIDER CONTENT)
• PTK NP development in 2020 (INSIDER CONTENT)
• PTK NP development in 2021 (INSIDER CONTENT)
• PTK NP development in 2022 (INSIDER CONTENT)
• PTK NP development in 2023 (INSIDER CONTENT)
• NEW, Feb. 5: PTK NP development in 2024 (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Second phase in the PTK Orel ground testing (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Manufacturing PTK Orel (INSIDER CONTENT)

PTK-M variant (INSIDER CONTENT)

• Design of PTK-M Orlyonok (INSIDER CONTENT)

PTK-ROS variant (INSIDER CONTENT)

Retrievable Progress cargo ship

Parom orbital tug

Russian Lunar Orbital Station, LOS

• Russian cis-lunar station concept in 2019 (INSIDER CONTENT)

Missions to Lagrangian points

Vision for Space Exploration, VSE: A NASA program for a manned lunar base, which could involve international partners, including Russia

• Op-ed: Launch of VSE in 2004 | End of the Constellation program in 2010
• Progress-Centaur: A US-Russian industry study of a cargo delivery system to the lunar orbit

Cis-lunar Gateway (a.k.a. International Manned Platform)

• Origin of the cis-lunar station project
• NEW, Feb. 8: Development of the cis-lunar Gateway in 2023 (INSIDER CONTENT)

Modules and major components:

• Power and Propulsion Element, PPE
  • PPE in 2022 (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Habitation and Logistics Outpost, HALO (INSIDER CONTENT)
  • PPE/HALO combo (INSIDER CONTENT)
  • HALO in 2022 (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Logistics Communications and Utilization Bus, LCUB, (later ESPRIT)
  • ESPRIT in 2022 (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Science airlock (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Robotic arm (INSIDER CONTENT)
• International habitation module, I-Hab
  • NEW, Feb. 8: I-Hab in 2023 (INSIDER CONTENT)
• D-Hab module (INSIDER CONTENT)
  • D-Hab in 2019 (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Dragon-XL lunar cargo ship (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Logistics Augmentation Module, LAM (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Logistics Module (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Japan's cargo ship for cis-lunar station (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Russian Airlock Module
  • NEW, Feb. 8: Airlock module in 2023 (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Lunar lander for the cis-lunar station (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Russian concept of the cis-lunar station based on NEM and UM modules (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Russian cargo ship for cis-lunar gateway (INSIDER CONTENT)

Systems and operations:

• Cis-lunar station budget (INSIDER CONTENT)
• The assembly scenario for the cis-lunar station (INSIDER CONTENT)
  • Cis-lunar station assembly scenario (October 2018) (INSIDER CONTENT)
  • Assembly scenarios (August 2019) (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Refueling operations (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Scheduling cis-lunar station development (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Orbital transfers of the cis-lunar station (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Upgrades in the rendezvous system of the cis-lunar station (INSIDER CONTENT)

Russian Lunar Descent and Ascent Complex, LVPK

• Design overview (INSIDER CONTENT)

Ryvok lunar transport vehicle (INSIDER CONTENT)

Russia considers cooperation with China in human space flight (INSIDER CONTENT)

As soon as rockets learned to fly beyond the atmosphere, the spacecraft developers on both sides of the Atlantic drafted the plans for planetary exploration. The Soviet space probes opened the race to the Moon, Venus and Mars. The projects of unmanned missions to Mercury and Jupiter were also under consideration in the former USSR.

Russian unmanned planetary exploration program in 2013

Russian unmanned planetary exploration program in 2014

ROBOTIC MISSIONS TO THE MOON

Historical missions:

Luna-1

Luna-9

Luna-10

Luna-13

Luna-24

Plans for the future:

Luna-Glob

Luna-Resurs (Origin of the project)

Rethinking Russian lunar plans in 2012

• Luna-Glob project
  • Luna-Glob project in 2023 (INSIDER CONTENT)
  • Luna-Glob launch
  • Design of the Luna-Glob spacecraft (INSIDER CONTENT)
  • Luna-Glob science (INSIDER CONTENT)
    • LIS-TV-RPM instrument (INSIDER CONTENT)
    • ADRON-LR instrument (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Luna-Glob orbiter
• Luna-Resurs lander
  • Luna-Resurs in 2017

Luna-Grunt

• Luna-Grunt mission in 2021 (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Luna-29 mission in 2019 (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Luna-29 mission in 2020 (INSIDER CONTENT)

Lunny Poligon

Plans for robotic missions to the Moon in 2023

ROBOTIC MISSIONS TO MARS

HISTORICAL MISSIONS:

Zond-2

Mars-69

5M Mars sample return project

Phobos (Fobos)

Mars-96

Phobos-Grunt (Fobos-Grunt)

FLYING TODAY:

ExoMars home page

ExoMars 2016

• Trace Gas Orbiter, TGO
• Schiaparelli lander, EDM
• Mission status in 2015
• Pre-launch processing
• Launch of ExoMars-2016
• Early operations of the ExoMars-2016 mission
• Mission of ExoMars-2016
• Deep-space maneuver
• Arrival at Mars
• Landing on Mars

PLANS FOR THE FUTURE:

ExoMars rover mission

• ExoMars rover mission status in 2022 (INSIDER CONTENT)

Phobos-Grunt-2 (Bumerang)

Mars-NET

Mars sample return

• Expedition-M Mars sample return mission

ROBOTIC MISSIONS TO VENUS

Historical missions:

Venera-7

Venera-72 No. 671 (Kosmos-482)

Venera-9 and 10

Plans for the future:

Venera-D

• Venera-D project in 2021

ROBOTIC MISSIONS BEYOND MARS AND VENUS

Historical missions:

3MV (Zond) project

Plans for the future:

Intergelio-Zond mission to explore our Sun

Solnechny Parus solar-sailing mission

Laplas mission to Jupiter and its moons

Missions to Mercury

Missions to comets and asteroids

• Anapa asteroid-orbiting mission
• Mission to Apophis

Hot topics:

SSKMS

INSIDER CONTENT

ASAT

Insider Content

MMKK

Insider Content

EKS (Tundra)

Bars-M

Persona

Geo-IK-2

GLONASS-K

A vast majority of satellites that the Soviet Union had launched from 1961 to 1991 carried out military missions. Publicly, however, the USSR denied the very existence of the military space program. Not surprisingly, numerous military space projects were not publically known until the last decade of the 20th century. As their US counterparts, the Russian satellites served as spies for the government, as space sentries looking for the incoming missiles, provided secret communications and weather forecasting and scanned surface of the oceans in search for potential targets for the Soviet cruise missiles.

NEW, March 4: Russian anti-satellite systems

• Almaz-T radar spacecraft
• Araks surveillance satellite
• Bars cartgography satellite
• Bars-M cartgography satellite
  • Latest mission: Bars-M No. 6
• Blagovest communications satellite series
  • Latest mission: Blagovest-14L
• Egyptsat-2 (559GK) series
  • EgyptSat-2
    EgyptSat-A
• EKS early warning satellite system
  • Latest mission: Fourth launch of the EKS/Tundra satellite
• EMKA (Kosmos-2525)
• EMKA-2
• Falcon Eye-2 (UAE)
• Garpun military data relay satellite
• Geo-IK-2 geodetic satellite
  • Latest mission: Geo-IK-2 No. 13L geodetic satellite
• GLONASS satellite navigation network
  • Uragan navigation satellite
  • GLONASS satellite missions
  • Latest mission: GLONASS-M No. 61
  • GLONASS-K
  • GLONASS-K2
    • Latest mission: GLONASS-K2 No. 13L
  • GLONASS-K2 navigation satellite
• IS anti-satellite system
• Khayam observation satellite
• Kanopus-ST ocean-watching satellite
• Kobalt-M reconnaissance satellite
• Kondor radar reconnaissance satellite
• Kondor-E radar reconnaissance satellite
• Kondor-FKA No. 1
• NEW, Nov. 29: Kondor-FKA No. 2
• Kosmos-2499
• Kosmos-2504
• Kosmos-2535, Kosmos-2536, Kosmos-2537, Kosmos-2538
• Kosmos-2542
• Kosmos-2558
• Kosmos-2561
• Liana electronic intelligence network
  • Latest mission: Lotos-S1 No. 809
• Meridian communications satellites
  • Latest mission: Meridian-M3 (20L)
• MMKK space plane
• Musson geodetic satellite
• Napryazhenie geodesy satellite
• Naryad anti-satellite system
• Neitron
• Oko/US-K early warning satellite
• Olymp-K
  • Second Olymp-K
• Parus navigation satellite
• Persona reconnaissance satellite
• Pion-NKS
• Raduga communications satellite
• Raduga-1/Globus-1 communications satellite
• Raduga-1M/Globus-1M communications satellite
• Razbeg reconnaissance satellite
• Razdan reconnaissance satellite
• Rodnik communications satellite
• Sfera geodetic satellite
• SKA radar satellite
• NEW, July 18: SSKMS secure satellite communications system (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Strela communications satellite
• Tselina electronic-intelligence satellite
• US-A and US-P ocean-surveillance and missile-guidance spacecraft
• Yantar-1KFT Kometa

Although most Soviet satellites had originated as defense-related systems, they eventually began contributing into civilian sectors of economy. Huge progress in satellite communications, weather forecasting and observations of the Earth's surface created a great demand for dedicated non-military satellites. While many application spacecraft still have a dual purpose, their transfer under jurisdiction of civilian agencies, along with their declassified and often commercial nature put such spacecraft into a distinct category.

Remote-sensing satellites:

Status of remote-sensing satellite systems in 2019 (INSIDER CONTENT)

NEW, Oct. 25: Status of remote-sensing satellite systems in 2024 (INSIDER CONTENT)

• Aist-2D
• Arktika
  • Latest mission: Arktika-M2
• Baumanets
• BelKA
• NEW, Sept. 3: Berkut remote-sensing satellite series (INSIDER CONTENT)
• NEW: Buro 1440 (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Elektro-1
• Elektro-L (series)
  • Latest mission: Elektro-L
• Kanopus
• Kanopus-V-3, Kanopus-V-4
• Kanopus V-5, Kanopus V-6
• Kanopus-V-IK
• Meteor weather-forecasting and remote-sensing satellite family
  • Meteor-M series
    • Latest mission: Meteor-M2-4
• Obzor-O
• Obzor-R
• RBKA satellite (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Resurs-DK1
• Resurs-P series
  • Latest mission: Resurs-P4
• NEW, Oct. 18: Resurs-PM (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Sentinel-1A
• Sentinel-1B
• Sentinel-3A
• Sfera communications and remote-sensing program (INSIDER CONTENT)
  • Skif Internet system (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Sich-2
• Sterkh
• Yubileiny (MiR)

Communications satellites

NEW, Nov. 13: Russian satellite communications in 2024 (INSIDER CONTENT)

• Angosat-1
• Angosat-2
• Buro 1440 (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Ekspress satellite series
  • Ekspress-AMU3 -AMU7
  • NEW, June 10: Ekspress-AMU4 (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Hispasat-36W-1
• Gazprom D2D (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Gonets
  • Latest mission: Gonets-M Group 18
• Gonets M1 (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Gorizont
• KazSat
• Luch data-relay satellite
  • Luch-5A
  • NEW, Oct. 3: Luch-5VM (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Marafon-IoT (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Nord project
• O3b constellation
• OneWeb
• Sich-2-30
• Skif-D
• Yamal series
  • Yamal-601

The very first satellite launched by the USSR in 1957 helped to advance the understanding of the upper atmosphere. Since then, Russian spacecraft have been making significant contributions in the mankind's understanding of the Solar System and the broader Universe. The Earth-orbiting satellites studied cosmic radiation, distant objects and physical phenomena in deep space. They also helped to advance material science and space biology.

NEW, Oct. 8: Russian space science in 2024 (INSIDER CONTENT)

Astrometria star-mapping satellite

AUOS spacecraft bus

Bion project home page

COROT astronomy satellite

Cosmos-1 solar sailing spacecraft

Foton material science satellite

Foton-M4

Gaia satellite

NEW, Nov. 4: Ionosfera-M

Karat (MKA-FKI) platform home page

• MKA-FKI (PN2) Relek
• MKA-FKI (PN3) Konus-M (372A353)
• MKA-FKI (PN4) Strannik
• MKA-FKI (PN5) ARKA

Kompas

Koronas-Foton

Lomonosov (a.k.a Mikhailo Lomonosov)

Navigator platform

Spektr-R (Radioastron) observatory

• Spektr-R mission in 2019 (INSIDER CONTENT)

Spektr-RG (Rentgen) X-ray observatory

• Original Spektr-RG (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Revival of Spektr-RG (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Spektr-RG project in 2019 (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Spektr-RG's cruise to Lagrange point (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Activation of the eROSITA telescope (INSIDER CONTENT)
• Spektr-RG project in 2022 (INSIDER CONTENT)

Spektr-UF (Ultrafiolet, WSO) ultraviolet observatory

Spektr-M (Millimetron) orbital observatory

VKZ probe

Vozvrat-MKA